Eggs In One Basket: A Model For Understanding the Maladaptive and Adaptive Dimensions of Mental Disorders, and Their Relations with Personality

Eggs In One Basket: A Model For Understanding the Maladaptive and Adaptive Dimensions of Mental Disorders, and Their Relations with Personality

Psychiatric disorders have been characterized as having a basis in one or more personality dimensions that correspond to symptom dimensions of the disorder, however the reason for these symptom dimensions occurring together is left unexplained, as the personality dimensions that the symptom dimensions map onto are not correlated. Furthermore, evolutionary theories of psychiatric disorders are apparently contradicted by the multidimensionality of psychiatric disorders, where one dimension is associated with positive outcomes supporting the evolutionary hypothesis, but the other dimension is associated with negative outcomes that contradict the hypothesis. The lack of correlation between personality traits that symptoms map onto has been previously explained as such disorders not indicating traditional symptoms of features that covary together, but rather interpersonal behavioral syndromes resulting from combinations of traits that do usually not co occur “emergent interpersonal syndromes” (Lilienfeld et al. 2019). Evolutionary explanations for apparently non-adaptive dimensions of mental disorders are mostly unexplained, and mostly are hypothesized as either being present in only severe dysfunctional cases of the disorder, conflated with symptoms of other disorders, etc, rather than having a role in the evolutionary benefits of the disorder (Del Giudice et al. 2014). In this paper, I propose a new model that accounts for these issues, integrating maladaptive and adaptive dimensions with a common cause, and demonstrating how extreme variation in one dimension of personality can affect other dimensions of personality in a way that does not reflect their correlations in the general population. The “Eggs In One Basket” model identifies psychiatric disorders as phenotypes that confer extreme evolutionary benefit to one particular area, where extreme enhancement in that area requires loss of other beneficial traits, but the extreme enhancement of one trait overshadows the loss of other beneficial traits, as such that for evolutionary strategies, ones eggs are all in one basket. The correlations between dimensions of mental disorders reflect their shared cause of a very exaggerated expression of one trait, and the dimensions themselves reflect variation in traits that enhance the core trait of the disorder, the variations also being produced by the exaggerated expression of the core trait, making the relation with the core trait and additional traits bidirectional. 

Schizotypal Personality Disorder

The symptoms of schizotypal personality disorder are dimensional, meaning they are present to varying degrees throughout the population, but are diagnosable as a disorder with pathological features when expressed to a much higher degree than the general population (Cloudfindings 2023a). Schizotypy is thought to have evolved in part as a trait that benefits mating success through enhancing traits such as creativity and empathy (Del Giudice 2017, 2018). Schizotypy is multidimensional, and the traits mainly linked with enhanced mating success are “positive” and “impulsive-nonconformity” dimensions of schizotypy whereas disorganized and especially “negative” schizotypy are associated with reduced mating success (Nettle & Clegg 2006)(Del Giudice 2018). Positive schizotypy is associated with high openness, however negative schizotypy is associated with low extraversion, and to a lesser extent low openness (Del Giudice 2018) however negative schizotypy primarily links with low extraversion rather than low openness (Cloudfindings 2023b). Positive and negative schizotypy are apparently contradictory in these aspects - however, I argue that negative schizotypy is part of the schizotypal mating strategy, and has an adaptive role in contributing to mating success when combined with positive and impulsive schizotypy. Low extraversion in combination with high positive schizotypy (which is linked to the openness aspect of openness to experience; Cloudfindings 2023a,b) may allow for more investment into development of creative interests and abilities, as individuals high in extraversion tend to invest more into socially desired goals and interests often involving other people (e.g., participating in social events, gaining popularity, gaining wealth, sports, schooling, etc) (Roberts & Robins 2000)(Baron-Cohen et al. 2006)(Ferguson & Negy 2014). Openness also negatively predicts interest and investment in extraversion associated goals, but positively predicts intellectual and creative goals (Roberts & Robins 2000). The attraction to creativity in partners does not necessarily require that the partner has other sources of sexual fitness, for example one study found that creative but poor men were preferred over uncreative but rich men by women in the fertile period of their menstrual cycle (Haselton & Miller 2006). High openness and low extraversion may reduce sexual fitness in some areas, but the benefits to creativity might outstand the reductions in sexual fitness in other areas, especially if their creativity is particularly exaggerated compared to most people - in agreement with this, persons with schizotypal and schizoid personality disorder are much more creative than the general population and high schizotypy individuals are very over-represented in creative professions (Kinney et al. 2001)(Mohr & Claridge 2015)(Parnas et al. 2019)(Crespi et al. 2016)(Cloudfindings 2023a)(Del Giudice et al. 2010). For individuals with higher creativity and appreciation for creativity (i.e., higher openness and schizotypy), a strategy focused on creativity above all else may be particularly effective for attracting such mates - in support of this, people high in schizotypy are likely to have partners who also have elevated schizotypy, and importantly this holds true for negative schizotypy as well as positive schizotypy (Lyons & Witcher 2019). Individuals high in negative schizotypy are likely to feel detached, different, and misunderstood as isolation and alienation are key aspects of negative schizotypy (Mason et al. 2005) and schizotypal and schizoid individuals tend to seek out individuals who are “real”, which may include having a similar detachment from the social world (Stanghellini & Ballerini 2007)(McWIlliams 2006). Perhaps, partner similarity in negative schizotypy, combined with exaggerated creativity and openness may make schizotypal individuals particularly desirable as mates for more introverted and open individuals, despite lacking sexual fitness indicators in other areas. Having particularly exaggerated creativity may also have benefits to sexual fitness in areas such as status, as the creativity may bring attention to individuals who are otherwise introverted, somewhat compensating for low extraversion. Other more dysfunctional features of schizotypy (e.g., paranoia, cognitive disorganization) are likely maladaptive byproducts of the cognitive style of schizotypy that is simultaneously responsible for the benefits to creativity and sexual fitness (Crespi & Badcock 2008)(Del Giudice 2018), however particularly exaggerated creativity and partner similarity may outshine the maladaptive aspects of schizotypy. Anhedonia is described as an aspect of negative schizotypy and may be impairing to creative abilities, however anhedonia seems to not be present in schizotypal personality disorder, but it is in schizophrenia (Camisa et al. 2005) - similarly, persons with schizotypal personality disorder tend to be highly creative but not schizophrenics (Kinney et al. 2001). Perhaps, anhedonia is a product of having too much negative schizotypy, and that a moderate level of negative schizotypy is ideal for enhancing creativity and mating success. Schizotypy in addition to low extraversion and high openness is associated with low conscientiousness in impulsive and disorganized factors (Cloudfindings 2023a). Conscientiousness may have negative and undesirable outcomes such as being economically unsuccessful and being poor at obtaining socially desired goals (Duckworth et al. 2012) as well as being a poor fit for a parent. However, low conscientiousness enhances creativity (Feist 2019), likely through non-conformity and disinterest in socially prescribed obligations and goals, people with low conscientiousness investing more into vocational interests and developing useful talent and skill in lieu of responsibilities and achievement through conformity (Cloudfindings 2024). Extreme non-conformity is a core feature of schizotypal personality disorder (Stanghellini & Ballerini 2007), and the unrotated components of the normally rotated big five traits reveals openness and conscientiousness to load on a diametric dimension of conformity vs non-conformity (Saucier 1994). Low extraversion is also associated with non-conformity (Roberts & Robins 2000). Together, this shows how the multiple dimensions of schizotypy all serve a purpose towards an extreme increase in an adaptive trait at the expense of other adaptive traits, the adaptive trait being creativity and openness, enhanced by low conscientiousness and extraversion. While openness does not correlate with conscientiousness and extraversion, openness at an extreme may lead to low conscientiousness and low extraversion as a consequence, as openness is negatively associated with many of the correlates of conscientiousness and extraversion. Positive schizotypy is the openness-linked factor of schizotypy (Cloudfindings 2023b), and is the unique dimension corresponding to schizotypy that distinguishes it from other disorders. This suggests the relationship with positive schizotypy and the non-openness linked factors is bi directional: being excessively high in openness produces low conscientiousness and extraversion, and being low in conscientiousness or extraversion enhances the expression of openness to an excessively high degree. 

Autism Spectrum Disorder

Autism has been linked with mating strategies as well as schizotypy, and like schizotypy, introversion and social difficulty are a major feature of autism (Baron-Cohen et al. 2006), however schizotypal personality disorder and autism are distinct conditions with differing and diametrical causes and correlates despite their apparent similarities (Cloudfindings 2023a)(Del Giudice 2018)(Crespi & Badcock 2008). Negative schizotypy is usually thought of as a purely pathological byproduct of hypermentalizing and cognitive dysfunction in schizotypy (Crespi & Badcock 2008), however an alternative explanation is that negative schizotypy has been selected for as it can enhance the benefits to mating success that positive schizotypy brings, as discussed in the previous section. Perhaps, autism and schizotypy both are associated with similar social difficulties because introversion enhances the benefits to sexual fitness that autistic and schizotypal traits give. While schizotypal individuals may focus on creative interests over socially desired ones, autistic individuals focus on mechanistic and “thing”-based interests over socially desired ones (Baron-Cohen et al. 2001)(Cloudfindings 2023a). Perhaps, as some authors have also pointed out (Badcock 2017), isolation benefits the development of interests and talents, and is a complementary - rather than contradictory - feature to the patterns of interests and “positive” traits in both autism and schizotypy. Like schizotypy, autism is multidimensional, and has a major dimension associated with more “positive” and non-pathological features such as attention to detail, strong interests, systemising, enhanced sensory abilities, and a more “pathological” dimension involving cognitive rigidity, reduced imagination, and social deficits (Cloudfindings 2021). In agreement with this model, the “positive” dimension of autistic traits benefits long term mating success, whereas the “negative” dimension of autistic traits does not, however the negative dimension of autistic traits predicts higher levels of the positive dimension of autistic traits (Del Giudice et al. 2010). Like with schizotypy, the introversion of autism enhances the development of talents associated with autism (Badcock 2017), making the talents more exaggerated and thus potentially benefiting mating success more - this has been studied far more in autism than it has been in schizotypy. Low openness is also characteristic of autism in addition to extraversion, which relates especially to impairment of imagination and social abilities (Cloudfindings 2023b). Additionally, people high in autistic traits are more likely to have a partner who is also high in autistic traits (Richards et al. 2022), suggesting similar benefits in relation to partner similarity that are present in schizotypy. 

Narcissistic Personality Disorder

Persons with narcissistic personality disorder are preoccupied with gaining success, prestige, wealth, and social status (Pincus et al. 2009)(Roberts & Robins 2000). Narcissism is associated with high extraversion, low agreeableness, and high neuroticism (Crowe et al. 2019), extraversion relating to pursuit of social status and prestige, agreeableness relating to competitiveness and exploitativeness, and neuroticism relating to insecurity and hypersensitivity. Narcissism is generally considered to have two main factors, grandiose and vulnerable narcissism, grandiose narcissism being related to high extraversion and low agreeableness, and vulnerable narcissism to low agreeableness and high neuroticism (Crowe et al. 2019). Like autism and schizotypy, the grandiose factor links to positive outcomes such as being perceived as competent and attractive and having good social skills, whereas the vulnerable factor links to negative outcomes such as being perceived as untrustworthy and aggressive and having poorer social skills (Back et al. 2013). However, the side effects of vulnerable narcissism may still be beneficial to gaining social status by enhancing the desire for status through insecurity, jealousy, and entitlement rage, which increase grandiose narcissism (Pincus et al. 2009) especially if one is able to hide these aspects, which narcissists tend to do (Pincus et al. 2009). Social status is a major trait that is sexually selected for, though it is not the only trait, perhaps having very high social status can outweigh the negative impacts of narcissism on other desirable traits such as empathy and creativity. Narcissists desire status but do not wish to do the work typically required to gain status such as becoming talented or building a successful business through honest means - reality TV stars have the highest levels of narcissism out of all celebrity groups, reflecting their sought status through being a reality tv star without any work or achievement (Young & Pinksky 2006). To my knowledge, vulnerable narcissism has not been investigated in celebrities, however cosmetic surgery is notably prevalent among celebrities, and vulnerable narcissism is associated with desire for cosmetic surgery (Cloudfindings 2022a). Reality TV is also known for dramatic social situations, often involving jealousy, competition, and insecurity, which are hallmarks of vulnerable narcissism. Extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism do not correlate on their own, however extraversion has opposing effects to agreeableness on various traits (Roberts & Robins 2000)(Fong et al. 2021). Less neurotic people are less concerned about popularity (Utz et al. 2012), and are less jealous (Hassanpoor et al. 2020). Low agreeableness and high neuroticism then perhaps emerge as a consequence of excessive extraversion - an relentless pursuit of status and socially desired goals would inevitably result in disagreeable and neurotic behavior related to such pursuit - similarly to how someone with a severe addiction might become emotionally volatile when they cannot use their substance of choice and may resort to stealing and deceiving others in pursuit of their high. The relationship between extraversion, the core of narcissism to low agreeableness and high neuroticism likely is bi-directional: excessive status seeking makes one disagreeable and neurotic, and being disagreeable and neurotic can promote excessive status seeking. 

Obsessive Compulsive Personality Disorder

Obsessive compulsive personality disorder is a disorder characterized by high conscientiousness, with symptoms such as perfectionism, rigid morality, workaholism, excessive need for organization, preoccupation with details and rules, stubbornness, social coldness, excessive cautiousness, rigid attachment to routines and ways of doing things, and unwillingness to work with others (Cloudfindings 2022b). Two factors can be extracted from OcPD symptoms: one corresponding to workaholism, perfectionism, and preoccupation with details and rules, the second corresponding to stubbornness, rigidity, social coldness, unwillingness to work with others, and inflexible morality (Hummelen et al. 2008)(Ansell et al. 2010). OcPD is shown to relate to autism, in both dimensions of repetitive/compulsive behavior and low cognitive empathy/rigidity (Cloudfindings 2022b). The low cognitive empathy/rigidity factor of autism corresponds to low openness, and the repetitive/compulsive factor to high conscientiousness (Cloudfindings 2023b). Conscientiousness is the primary personality trait linked to OcPD, however OcPD also correlates with low openness, extraversion, and neuroticism (Samuel et al. 2012). Conscientiousness, while generally uncorrelated with openness and extraversion, does have opposite correlates to extraversion and openness. Conscientiousness is associated with lower popularity (Linden et al. 2010), and low sensation seeking & sociosexuality, which are positively associated with extraversion (Del Giudice et al. 2014). People high in conscientiousness also show less appreciation of offensive humor which translates to being less well liked in the workplace (Yam et al. 2019). Extraverts are more materialistic, whereas people high in conscientiousness are less so (Otero-Lopez & Villardefrancos 2013). Conscientiousness and openness inversely relate to conformity (Saucier 1994), creativity (Batey et al. 2010), , liberalism (Gerber et al. 2011), sexual deviance (Cloudfindings 2024b), preference for variety vs routine (Cloudfindings 2023b), and moral rigidity (Cloudfindings 2023c). While to my knowledge no study has investigated the relationship with the OcPD factors and personality, the workaholism factor resembles high conscientiousness and appears mostly adaptive, whereas the rigidity factor resembles low extraversion, openness, and agreeableness, and appears mostly maladaptive. However, the adaptive and maladaptive factor are correlated, and like with narcissism, autism, and schizotypy, the maladaptive factor may function as both a side effect of excessive conscientiousness, and undesirable traits (low extraversion, openness, agreeableness) that intensify conscientiousness at the cost of the desirable traits. It has been demonstrated that people with very high conscientiousness tend to be unpopular, uninteresting, and unattractive (de Bruyn et al. 2012), however such personalities may be desirable as long term mates for the provisioning benefits of excessive conscientiousness - obsessive compulsive personality disorder is indeed associated with higher economic status and self employment (Ullrich et al. 2007)(Wolfe & Patel 2017), and obsessive compulsive personality disorder is associated with a low short term mating effort but high long term mating effort (Jonason et al. 2018). 

Eating Disorders & Body Dysmorphia

Anorexia, bulimia, and body dysmorphia are closely related, female-typical disorders, eating disorders being a manifestation of body dysmorphia (Cloudfindings 2022a). Body dysmorphia is characterized by an extreme exaggerated perception of oneself as being extremely unattractive in physical appearance, perception of lacking other attractive traits to make up for one's perceived physical unattractiveness, envy and competitiveness with other women in terms of enhancing physical appearance, avoidance of sexual activity and relationships with the belief that no one could find them attractive or enjoy sexual activity with them, and cognitive biases such as attributing any perceived rejection or lack of attention to their perceived extreme unattractiveness (Cloudfindings 2022a). Body dysmorphia can be split into two factors, one relating to competitiveness and appearance enhancement, and one relating to avoidance of sexual and romantic relationships (Cloudfindings 2022a). The competitiveness factor is strongly associated with effort into and importance attributed to being seen as sexually desirable, especially above other women, and to particularly desirable men, whereas the avoidance factor shows the inverse association (Cloudfindings 2022a). Drive for thinness, a factor separate from but correlated with body dysmorphia, correlates with histrionic personality traits and highly with the competitiveness factor, whereas the avoidance factor correlates negatively with histrionic personality traits (Cloudfindings 2022a). Drive for thinness correlates with high extraversion and neuroticism, and the avoidance factor correlates with high neuroticism, low conscientiousness, low extraversion, and high agreeableness (Cloudfindings 2023b). Competitiveness relates to vulnerable narcissism, which is associated with low agreeableness and high neuroticism, and is not associated with histrionic personality traits that relate to high extraversion, therefore competitiveness likely is associated with low agreeableness and high neuroticism (Cloudfindings 2022a). The avoidance factor correlates negatively with histrionic personality traits, supporting a negative relation with extraversion (Cloudfindings 2022). Body dysmorphia, then like other psychiatric disorders appears to have an adaptive and maladaptive dimension which appear contradictory - where the competitiveness factor leads to behavior that enhances one's appearance to obtain desirable sexual partners, and the avoidance factor leads to avoidance of having sexual partners. Like other psychiatric disorders, the maladaptive avoidance factor correlates highly with the adaptive competitiveness factor, showing that the maladaptive aspect increases the adaptive aspect. Avoidance behavior reinforces the need to enhance one's attractiveness, at the expense of sociosexual behavior. The reduction in sociosexual behavior from avoidance may not necessarily prevent reproduction all together - rather it may lead to a very highly selective sexual strategy where those high in avoidance only let their guard down for people they find most desirable, and the competitiveness factor enhances the ability to choose the most desirable partner through enhancing their appearance and sexual desirability. The lack of apparent sexual availability from those high in avoidance may be overshot by their efforts into enhancing their appearance, leading to being pursued despite apparent sexual unavailability. Body dysmorphia likely does not just lead to effort in enhancing physical attractiveness, but other aspects of attractiveness as well, such as feminine expression and personality, and other personality traits desired by men, and even may present in ways such as being childlike to attract men if they believe desirable men to be attracted to childlike characteristics (Semenova 2021) - such as is referenced in the song “Lolita” by Lana Del Rey: “Hey Lolita, hey, hey Lolita, hey, I know what the boys want, I'm not gonna play”. Overall, body dysmorphia and eating disorders reflect an extreme investment in enhancing physical attractiveness and sexual desirability, at the cost of maladaptive behaviors. At the core body dysmorphia likely relates to high neuroticism as low self esteem and self consciousness are facets of neuroticism, the avoidance factor appearing to relate to low extraversion, and competitiveness to low agreeableness - low extraversion and low agreeableness having opposite effects on competition (Crowe et al. 2019) and sociosexuality (Del Giudice et al. 2014). The inhibition of sociosexual behavior from low extraversion may increase selectivity for desirable partners, and the low self esteem and lack of esteem enhancing experiences (due to avoidance of situations where someone might express attraction) from low extraversion may intensify the need for enhancing one's own appearance. 

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