Schizophrenia and Autism as Diametric Disorders of High Intelligence
Schizophrenia and Autism as Diametric Disorders of High Intelligence
Crespi (2016a) modeled autism as a disorder of high intelligence, where intelligence and autism overlap genetically and phenotypically, autism being essentially the dysfunctional consequence of high intelligence. While there is strong evidence for this model, Crespi models autism & high intelligence as opposed to schizophrenia, with schizophrenia being a disorder related to low intelligence in the model. I contest this aspect of the model in this paper, and argue that instead autism and schizophrenia are both disorders of high intelligence, specialized for different environments and associated mating strategies. I also argue that culture and certain biases have lead to the mischaracterization of non-autistic intelligence, and that schizotypic intelligence is equally prevalent but less recognized by the majority of society - especially academia, which I argue is largely designed in a way that rejects high intelligence if it is not autistic. Diagnostic biases may also confound the apparent statistical relationship with schizotypy and intelligence. I put forth a new model of autism and schizotypy based on the existing diametric model, defining multiple “types” of these disorders, and their relation to other disorders, and explain overlaps and differences that these different types create, with reference to life history theory, personality, and intelligence. “Positive” symptoms of autism and schizotypy relate to high intelligence, and their negative counterparts relate to low intelligence. Autism and schizotypy are differentiated by certain psychological traits which can be influenced by environment, whether they are caused by low or high intelligence.
Intellect and Environment
It is argued by certain groups that intelligence is highly dependent on an individuals environment, and that group differences intelligence reflect environment, and that intelligence is not an innate ability (Cloudfindings 2023). While this idea largely is not supported and is politically motivated, I suggest a similar idea: that the conventional picture of intelligence may require a particular environment to manifest, and that intelligence manifests very differently depending on the environment. Autism has been associated with early environments characterized by wealth, predictability, and high parental investment (Crespi 2016a)(Del Giudice 2018)(Andersen 2022) autistic individuals tend to be less exploratory, less risk taking, and rely more on caregivers for development of worldviews and life goals (Andersen 2022). Schizotypy and schizophrenia, on the other hand are associated with early environments characterized by poverty, unpredictability, and negative family relations (Crespi 2016a)(Del Giudice 2018), and are associated with a higher tendency towards exploration and independence in developing worldviews and life goals (Andersen 2022). This reflects that autism and schizotypy are respectively slow and fast life history strategies (Del Giudice 2018), autism geared toward slower reproduction, a smaller number of offspring with a fewer number of sexual partners, with high parental investment into offspring, whereas schizotypy is geared toward early reproduction, sociosexual behavior and a higher number of sexual partners (Del Giudice et al. 2014). Achievement through conventional means is often required for intelligence to be considered valid by a large portion of society, though, obviously credentials are not actually a consistently reliable indicator of intelligence nor competence (Kim 2008)(Walsh 2000)(Irwig et al. 2008). As it turns out, achievement through conventional means is more dependent on factors like having a more advantageous early environment even when controlling for factors such as education and intelligence (Fergusson & Woodward 2000). Traits associated with fast life history strategies that may contribute to a person's ability to contribute to science tend to be selected against by academic institutions as persistence and sociability are required for achievement through such means, rather than intelligence or competence (Charlton 2009a). Autistic traits are associated with socioeconomic power and achievement through conformance (Overskeid 2016), and certain aspects of high conscientiousness (Del Giudice 2018)(Cloudfindings 2022a). Schizotypy on the other hand is associated with low conscientiousness and extreme non-conformity (Cloudfindings 2023b). Schizotypy is highly associated with artistic creativity (Cloudfindings 2023b) - as are harsh early environments (Orkibi & Ram-Vlasov 2019), and fast life history traits such as addiction (Cloudfindings 2021a). Being an artist is a risky strategy, however it can lead to economic, social and sexual success (Cloudfindings 2024a). Cognitive empathy, which is characteristically reduced in autism, is increased by harsh environments (Greenberg et al. 2018), and cognitive empathy is important for the development of independent worldviews and exploration (Andersen 2022), as well as verbal courtship abilities which along with theory of mind are highly important for being able to attract sexual partners in the context of a fast life history strategy, and courtship abilities appear to be reduced in autism and increased in schizotypy (Del Giudice et al. 2010). Creative artists tend to be attractive as short term mates and preferred over rich and uncreative artists and businessmen as short term mates (Haselton & Miller 2006), but not long term mates. While the term artist usually refers to specifically aesthetic creativity, on a broader level, artists are intelligent people who express intelligence through non-conforming means and achieve through self directed strategies and social growth, and I would consider artists to be grouped along with entrepreneurs and vocational scientists, both groups which tend to also have higher levels of schizotypy (Pushkarskaya et al. 2020)(Charlton 2009a). Artists (in the more conventional sense), entrepreneurs, and scientists all have considerably higher intelligence than the general population (Tiebout & Meier 1936)(Bergner 2020)(Lau & Roeser 2010), though artists and entrepreneurs also are characterized by traits such as risk taking which are associated with fast life history strategies - while there is little to no direct research on vocational scientists, it's likely that, like entrepreneurs and artists, vocational scientists would be characterized by high intelligence and fast life history strategy traits (Charlton 2009a). Self directed success through such means requires cognitive empathy (Korte et al. 2018), which is reduced in autism, and increased by harsh environments.
To a degree, the gene environment correlation is likely to play a significant role in the relationship between environment and the manifestation of intelligence, in such that parents with antisocial traits are likely to pass these too their offspring, and antisocial traits also lead to behaviors that create harsh environments for offspring (Sesardic 2005). This is similar to - using the example someone gave me many years ago when I did not yet understand the gene-environment correlation - how if you have genes that predispose you to musical creativity and interest, you may create an environment where musical creativity is promoted, and if your child grows up to become musical, this may be interpreted as a purely environmental effect, however it's likely that genetics would have had just as if not a larger role than environment, and that the music promoting environment is in part a symptom of having musical genes in ones family.
Diametric Expressions of Shared Traits & Diagnostic Bias
I argue that many of the characteristics of autism are similarly present in schizotypy, but take a characteristically different form. Self taught talent has been recognized in autism (Happe & Frith 2010), but virtually completely unrecognized in schizotypy, however recent studies have shown that like autism, schizotypal personality disorder is indeed associated with talent (Tarasova et al. 2022) and characterizes a portion of intellectually gifted people (Lee et al. 2019). Autism is characterized by having strong, non social interests, and it has been expected that schizotypy would be associated with social interests by the diametric model of autism and schizotypy, however this appears to not be the case (Yang et al. 2022), and persons high in positive schizotypy have more engagement in intellectual hobbies and researching intellectual topics like individuals with autism (Maouch et al. 2022), though are less likely to have hobbies like gaming, which autistic individuals are more likely to have (Yang et al. 2022). The fact that this has been acknowledged to characterize autism, but not schizotypy in research, likely has lead to the perception that intellectual interests are only characteristic of autism, and therefore intelligent schizotypes are probably likely to be diagnosed with autism rather than schizotypal personality disorder, especially since high intelligence can reduce the likelihood of magical, paranormal, and conspiracy beliefs (Rizeq et al. 2021) - autistic traits relative to schizotypy show a strong association with less conspiracy beliefs towards the autism direction, however this association disappears in highly educated individuals (Tarasi et al. 2023). This is not to say that schizotypal individuals with magical beliefs are unintelligent - my experience with other schizotypes that are significantly more spiritual than I am has been generally that they are significantly more intellectual and logical than most people - as I will argue in the next paragraph, the type of intelligence that characterizes schizotypy is likely to lead to odd beliefs except perhaps at particularly high levels of intelligence, or perhaps in combination with some autistic traits. There is strong evidence that repetitive behaviors such as strong interests and repetitive movements are common to both autism and positive schizotypy (Cloudfindings 2024b). Social isolation is also similarly associated with schizotypy and autism, however characteristically schizotypes do not have reduced cognitive empathy and tend to have higher cognitive empathy (Cloudfindings 2023b). Social isolation has been identified as a trait associated with development of talent (Cloudfindings 2024a), and also is weakly associated with having a higher IQ (Anglim et al. 2022). Magical and odd beliefs also may characterize a portion of autistic individuals, though these take a different form than they do in schizotypy - the magical beliefs of autistic individuals often appear to be existing systems of spirituality like witchcraft. It is difficult to precisely quantify the difference in magical beliefs between schizotypy and autism, however it is clearly noticeable if one has decent cognitive empathy and experience with many autistic and schizotypal individuals such as myself. However, autistics who do not appear to have atheistic and scientific beliefs might be misdiagnosed as schizotypal due to the lack of recognition of this within the literature - I will likely conduct a study in the future to gain empirical data to characterize this. Some basic observations however, are that for the autistic with magical beliefs, it is a much larger part of their identity and self presentation, and in schizotypes magical beliefs are often held more privately and are significantly less tied to identity - I discussed the relation with autism and identity in Cloudfindings (2022b).
Autism as “Safe” Intelligence
Autism shows overlaps with high intelligence, but also low intelligence, and these aspects of low intelligence are ones that may be risky. Intelligence tends to be associated with non-conformity, however autism is associated with conventional worldviews, moral absolutism, lower exploration, achievement through conformity, and less antisocial and risk taking behaviors like substance use (Cloudfindings 2023b). This produces a manifestation of intelligence that is limited in certain ways to be ideal for a slow life history strategy, where without these limitations, it would lead to a very different phenotype. Schizotypy, in contrast to autism, I argue is intelligence without the conformity favoring limitations that characterize autism. A strong piece of evidence that both autism and schizotypy are disorders of high intelligence is that through principal components analysis, autism and schizotypy form a shared trait typically referred to as ‘social difficulty’ that correlates with high intelligence - the second component is a trait that has autistic traits at one pole and positive schizotypal traits at the other (a diametric spectrum from autism-schizotypy), and this trait does not predict intelligence but does predict handedness so that more schizotypal individuals are less consistently handed and less right handed (Dinsdale et al. 2013) and this is also found to predict non-conformity (Grillo et al. 2018). Both cognitive empathy and intelligence have been found to predict more permissive attitudes to forbidden social rule violations, such as use of slurs in a context that does not produce harm or indicate ill intent (Cloudfindings 2024c), that finding in itself likely would not be publishable in a journal and simply investigating the topic would likely be met with threats and punishment, as is common for academics who research controversial topics (Clark et al. 2023). Individuals with conforming and more autistic personalities tend to hold privilege and power in society (Overskeid 2016)(Crespi 2016a), and moral absolutism is likely a strong indicator of social and economic privilege through high disgust and low cognitive empathy, the reverse pattern characterizing individuals from disadvantaged backgrounds (Orkibi & Ram-Vlasov 2019)(Del Giudice 2018). While autism may be associated with some superficial and non-risky aspects of non-conformity, risky non-conformity appears to be associated instead with schizotypy and high intelligence but not autism. Intelligence confers a disposition to odd, non-conformist, and sometimes “silly” beliefs and a lack of “common sense” (Charlton 2009b), not dissimilar from schizotypy (Andersen 2022)(Cloudfindings 2023b)(Stanghellini & Ballerini 2007). Intelligence is associated with sensation seeking, which confers disposition to various risk taking and non-conformist behaviors, however autism is associated with reduced sensation seeking and risk taking behavior, whereas schizotypy is associated with higher sensation seeking and risk taking (Del Giudice et al. 2014) - the autistic person is intelligent, but is a coward who doesn’t smoke crack (quoting the psychopathic schizotype Viper the Rapper’s song “You’ll Cowards Don’t Even Smoke Crack”), which may be advantageous in some ways, except for attracting sexual partners, in which smoking crack appears to be advantageous (Cavazos-Rehg et al. 2010)(Santelli et al. 1998)(Shrier et al. 1997)(Assari et al. 2014)(Desiderato & Crawford 1995), in line with schizotypy being an unrestricted, fast life history strategy manifestation of intelligence - schizotypy being very strongly associated with substance use (Cloudfindings 2023b). In reference to exploration, the diametric schizotypy-autism factor has been associated with exploration in the direction of schizotypy correlating to higher exploration, supporting the idea of autism as “safe” intelligence (Del Giudice et al. 2014).
Spatial & Verbal Intelligence
Autism and schizotypy have been previously characterized as involving an imbalance favoring high spatial intelligence and high verbal intelligence respectively (Crespi & Badcock 2008). Genetic differences in these intelligences likely contribute to the differentiation between autism and schizotypy, as possibly environmental differences do as well. Given that harsh environments increase cognitive empathy (Greenberg et al. 2018), and cognitive empathy is associated with verbal intelligence (Del Giudice 2018) this shows evidence of an environmental effect, and antisocial personality traits being genetically associated with high verbal IQ relative to spatial (Snow & Thurber 1998) show evidence of a genetic effect on fast life history strategy traits on verbal IQ (which characterize antisocial personality disorder, Del Giudice 2018).
The Cloudfindings Dichotomy
Schizophrenia, at one point was named “dementia praecox”, which means early onset dementia, as many of the symptoms of schizophrenia resemble dementia. I argue that, a portion of schizophrenia of diagnoses are mostly unrelated to schizotypy, and instead, represent a disease condition, which is similar to dementia - similar to the “O-Autism” subtype coined by Marco Del Giudice (2018) representing autism symptoms that emerge as a result of intellectual disability and pathological processes, rather than the mostly unrelated, intelligence linked high functioning autism phenotype (Del Giudice 2018). Genetic studies show strong support for this - for genetic risk for schizophrenia, there appears to be two separate clusters of genes associated with schizophrenia, one linked with low intelligence, the other linked with education attainment and bipolar disorder (Wu et al. 2024). For the role of both intelligence and intellectual disability in producing the symptoms of schizophrenia and autism, and intellectual disability more likely resulting in a more dysfunctional and likely to be diagnosed phenotype, this is likely the reason why both autism and schizophrenia patients have lower IQs on average, as the majority diagnosed will primarily have expression of the dysfunctional type. Schizophrenic patients likely more often have the low intelligence phenotype or a prominent expression of it, and schizotypal patients the education & bipolar linked phenotype, as is supported in studies such as Camisa et al. (2005) which found schizophrenia patients to be characterized by anhedonia, low openness, and neuroticism, but schizotypal patients to be characterized by high openness, low conscientiousness, and magical thinking (Camisa et al. 2005). In 1899, Emil Kraepelin put forth a model that divided “dementia praecox” and bipolar disorder into separate disease concepts which overlap (Kraepelin 1899). I propose a similar model in relation to schizophrenia, but a bit of a rotation - rather than separating schizophrenia and bipolar disorder, the phenotype associated with mania, schizotypy, high intelligence, and positive autistic traits (such as strong interests and repetitive behaviors, mentioned previously) should be considered separate, but overlapping with the phenotype associated with psychosis, negative symptoms, and intellectual decline, the phenotypes on both sides which have been named “schizophrenia”. The phenotype associated with intellectual disability, likely also resembles autism, in terms of social deficits, flat affect, and other features - this is in agreement with the finding that schizophrenia characterized by positive symptoms with low negative symptoms is associated with higher cognitive functioning, and vice versa, and that autism characterized by savantism (which is related to the repetitive/detail oriented domain of autistic traits; Baron-Cohen et al. 2009) is associated with higher cognitive function compared to autism characterized by social deficits (Crespi 2008). Indeed, high positive schizotypy is negatively associated with both social anhedonia and autistic social deficits, and positively with autistic-like repetitive behavior (Del Giudice et al. 2014), though clearly, positive (repetitive/detail oriented) autistic traits and positive schizotypal traits still are separate and diametric in many ways, (e.g., Del Giudice et al. 2010; Brosnan et al. 2010). Relating to personality traits, positive schizotypy, and to a lesser extent positive autistic traits appear to be associated with openness and exploration (Cloudfindings 2024h), but notably, positive schizotypy and positive autistic traits appear to be associated with lower conscientiousness and higher conscientiousness respectively (Cloudfindings 2023c)(Camisa et al. 2005)(Cloudfindings 2023b)(Del Giudice 2018). Given that conscientiousness relates to traits like persistence, self control, and conformity, it makes complete sense that if positive autistic traits and positive schizotypy are associated with high intelligence, that autism would be a “safe” intelligence, and schizotypy an unrestricted risky intelligence. Stanghellini & Ballerini (2007) report that schizophrenia spectrum patients have a characteristic value system that explains behaviors often typically explained in purely cognitive and pathological terms as “deficits” which may not be entirely accurate (Stanghellini & Ballerini 2002). Well perhaps, both are true - the high-intelligence linked schizotype is made apparently asocial by consequences of high intelligence and exploration (see next paragraph), whereas the low intelligence linked schizotype mainly is asocial because of deficits in reward and social cognition. There is good evidence that similar phenotypes can emerge from opposing causes: for example, adherence to routines is a feature of both the positive and negative dimension of autistic traits (e.g., Cloudfindings 2021b), however, perhaps on the positive dimension the repetitive behavior reflects enjoyment and motivation towards repetitive behaviors (i.e., obsessiveness), and on the negative dimension it reflects a lack of ability to cognitively adapt to novelty and ambiguity - indeed, low flexibility is characteristic of this dimension, and obsessive compulsive behaviors are characteristic of the repetitive dimension (Cloudfindings 2021b), and literal language shows a similar pattern (Cloudfindings 2024b). Autism has been typically characterized by sensory hypersensitivity, however, sensory hyposensitivity is also commonly found in autism, and autistic persons with sensory hyposensitivity typically are lower functioning (Zachor et al. 2013) - not dissimilarly, positive schizotypy has been found to be associated with better sensory abilities in some aspects (Deng et al. 2022), and while I cannot find direct evidence of an association with negative schizotypy and sensory abilities, the decreased enjoyment of sensory experiences characterizing negative schizotypy likely reflects that like with autism, the negative dimension is characterized by reduced sensory abilities compared to the positive dimension. In agreement with both positive schizotypal and positive autistic traits being associated with high intelligence, sensory abilities are found to positively predict intelligence (Acton & Schroeder 2001), and anhedonia which characterizes negative schizotypy - and possibly autism as autism involves reduced motivation especially in association with social deficits (Crespi 2016b) - is associated with reduced sensory sensitivity (Rey et al. 2010).
High Intelligence & Sociality in Autism & Schizotypy
The high intelligence linked schizotypal is characterized by hyper mentalistic social cognition (thinking about and relating things to others minds, intentions and social situations to a pathologically excessive degree) (Heather & Lenzenweger 2019) which causes paranoia and social anxiety (Ballespi et al 2019), a need for intellectual independence and sociality often being a threat to intellectual independence, as well as perhaps difficulty having resonance and properly responding to others socially, not due to lacking social intuition, but because of excessive social intuition which may make an individual overly conscious of the possibility of things such as others misinterpretations as communication is ambiguous and schizotypy predicts increased awareness of ambiguity (Grimshaw et al. 2010), how variation in minds can lead to different expectations from a person, which people high in theory of mind and schizotypy are more aware of (Cloudfindings 2024i), and that most individuals are bound by culture and rules rather than reason, as high theory of mind and schizotypy prevent being bound to one system of morality or social rules - not leading to an amorality like in psychopathy, but to a morality which is more intention and harm based, flexible, and humanistic which is opposite to autism (Cloudfindings 2024i)(Cloudfindings 2023d) - therefore genuine expression in most contexts would likely be social self harm for the schizotype, as deviating from the religion of one's interlocutor places you as a “bad person” and an outgroup, which impedes a person from empathizing, with biological mechanisms involved in this (Cloudfindings 2024j) - indeed, schizotypal individuals have to mask publicly in order to avoid ostracization (Stanghellini & Ballerini 2007). The lack of ability for most people to empathize with someone who doesn’t fit into a cultural box leads to negative social experiences for the schizotype when they express themselves (McWilliams 2006), and great misunderstanding (e.g., my beliefs are put into existing stereotypes when I express myself unless I excessively explain them, which often doesn’t work)(I don’t tell people in person that I’m a scientist because they’ll think I’m making a pathetic attempt at lying about myself to gain social status)(I’m a transphobic trans woman who is an incel that is literally female and a nazi who is a libtard and socialist capitalist who is racist and a race traitor who is too socially inept to find a girlfriend and has sexual success due to being an evil manipulator who is the dumbest and smartest person ever and a libertarian authoritarian psychopathic moralist - the list goes on), which can make socializing scary, pointless, and make one feel very alienated from others, sometimes to the point of delusion (Parnas et al. 2021). In my own experience, even though I am able to get over social anxiety now, I choose to only socialize online as I am better able to find people who won’t misunderstand me, and being misunderstood has somewhat less consequences online. These outcomes, in an intelligent person, can likely be prevented by conscientiousness, like in autism, however, this leads to a new set of social challenges, some overlapping. Autistic individuals tend to attach to cultures and identities - perhaps more so than the average person (Cloudfindings 2022b), and these identities often may be ones which in some way signal low social status or low social ability, such as stereotypically “cringey” interests. In some ways, autistic individuals can be a threat to less autistic and especially schizotypal individuals, due to the conformity that comes with autism - in layman's terms, are more likely to “snitch”. Being socially perceived as an autistic phenotype, leads to the same perceptions in my own experience, despite being the most libertarian person in the room, I have often been perceived as the person you have to follow the rules around, purely due to my social inhibition. Expressing oneself as an autistic person, may signal to others that the person does not “get it”, is potentially a threat to them, and may be harmful to one's own status to associate with (Sasson et al. 2017). Subtle oddities such as repetitive movements may shine a light on this weirdness, and issues like sensory sensitivity may discourage autistic individuals from participating in activities considered “fun” which are often overstimulating for the autistic person. For this reason, like the schizotype, the autistic person is often driven to mask their true personality, but because their personality shows off their psychological phenotype, whereas in the schizotype its because it will show off a psychological type, cultural affiliation, and belief system that does not match the one they actually have. However, like schizotypes (Stanghellini & Ballerini 2007)(Jefsen et al. 2022), autistic individuals are more able to get along with individuals that are of a similar neurotype to them (Connolly et al. 2019). Autistic individuals and “neurotypical” individuals often misunderstand each other, but autistics are able to understand other autistics quite well (Marcchini et al. 2024) - while to my knowledge, no study of the sort has been conducted with schizotypal individuals, in my personal experience with many different autistic and schizotypal individuals has been the same, and schizotypes I have known have reported the experience of not being understood by autistic individuals, often more so than “neurotypicals”, and the least misunderstood by other schizotypes.
Mania, Intelligence, Autism, and Schizotypy
Mania has been characterized as relating to hyper mentalism, and part of the schizotypy side of the autism-schizotypy continuum (Crespi 2016b). However, I argue mania is both a phenotype of high intelligence and hyper mentalism, making it most common among positive schizotypes, secondly common in positive autistics, uncommon in negative schizotypes, and least common in positive schizotypes. Firstly, it has been found directly that intellectual giftedness is associated with bipolar disorder (Gale et al. 2013). Schizotypes with mania are typically higher functioning and have higher intelligence than schizotypes without mania (Del Giudice 2018). Bipolar disorder has been identified as a phenotype associated with high functioning autism in some cases (Del Giudice 2018). Mania is associated with behaviors that I have hypothesized above to relate to intelligence such as repetitive behaviors (Randrup et al. 1980), social oddness (Schalet et al. 2011), and sensitivity to pleasure (Schalet et al. 2011). Sensitivity to pleasure is likely crucial in maintaining strong interests as the drive to learn more information is pleasure driven (Radtke & Stam 2008)(Costa et al. 2014). Mania is characterized by hypersexual behavior (Geller 2004), and autism is found to be associated with both hypersexuality and hyposexuality (Schottle et al. 2017), and this may be the case in schizotypy as well (Cloudfindings 2023e)(Edinoff et al. 2021), and sexual functioning is associated with better cognitive functioning (Joseph et al. 2013). Autistic females are less likely to be hypersexual than autistic males (Schottle et al. 2017), and in agreement with the relationship with intelligence, autistic females are much less likely to have high intelligence than autistic men are (Del Giudice 2018).
Overlapping Neurobiology of Intelligence, Autism, and Schizotypy
General brain excitation (as measured by higher glutamate relative to GABA) is associated with intelligence (Marsman et al. 2017). The shared dimension of social difficulty characterizing both autism and schizotypy that correlates with high intelligence (Dinsdale et al. 2013), is also found to correlate with higher general brain excitation (Ford et al. 2017), and mania also correlates with brain excitation (Michael et al. 2003). Blocking glutamate is shown to produce both autistic-like and schizophrenia-like symptoms in rats (Bove et al. 2022)(Becker et al. 2003), and impairs sensory abilities (Giorgetti et al. 2015) and sexual function (Fleischmann et al. 1991). Increasing dopamine activity promotes both autistic-like (Lee et al. 2018), and psychotic-like effects (Snyder 1993), and higher levels are associated with intelligence and mania (DeYoung 2013). Blocking dopamine in schizophrenic patients can cause emergence of rigid autistic-like behavior (Crespi 2019), and low dopamine is also associated with negative symptoms of schizophrenia (Pogarell et al. 2012). Psychedelics produce pro-psychotic effects such as ideas of reference (Donaldson 2013) and hyper-associative thinking (Tagliazucchi 2022) but autistic effects as well such as suppression of language (Tagliazucchi 2022) and the default mode network (Gattuso et al. 2022), these being associated with autism (Crespi 2016b). Autism is associated with enhanced local relative to global processing and schizotypy the opposite pattern (Andersen 2022), and psychedelics can enhance both local and global processing (Gattuso et al. 2022). Psychedelics can also acutely produce mania (Hendin & Penn 2022)(Halim et al. 2023)(Barber et al. 2022). In both autistic and schizophrenic patients, elevated levels of endogenous psychedelics have been found in urine (Emanuele et al. 2010), directly supporting a hypothesis that psychedelics increase both autistic and schizotypal brain function. Psychedelics also increase BDNF long term (De vos et al. 2021), and also increase openness long term (Erritzoe et al. 2019). While there have been no studies reporting this, users on forums such as reddit have reported that the BDNF agonist 7,8-dihydroxyflavone produces psychedelic like effects including magical thinking, and high BDNF is linked to both autism and high intelligence (Crespi 2019). Increasing acetylcholine is shown to reduce negative symptoms of autism (Karvat & Kimchi 2014), and symptoms of schizophrenia (Paul et al. 2022), and blocking acetylcholine activity produces a state mimicking psychosis (Fourniquet et al. 2023), acetylcholine having a positive effect on cognitive function (Cloudfindings 2024k). Some GABA agonists produce psychotic-like effects (Elko et al. 2019)(Tsai et al. 2003)(Toner et al. 2000), and reducing GABA can also produce psychotic-like effects (Seebach & Jost 1992)(Deiker & Chambers 1978), but increasing GABA can also treat psychosis (Wolkowitz & Pickar 1991). Increasing GABA does not appear to produce autistic traits however and appears to universally reduce autism symptoms.
Diametric Neurobiology of Autism and Schizotypy
If autistic and schizotypal traits are both produced by elevations or decreases in intelligence-linked neurochemicals, what differentiates them? Oxytocin is a hormone which has been linked diametrically with autism and schizotypy, and doesn’t seem to affect overall intelligence, however increasing oxytocin biases cognitive processing toward schizotypy and away from autism, increasing attention to and processing of social information, and increasing social emotions (Crespi 2016c). Cannabinoids behave similarly, enhancing cognitive empathy, creativity, and producing schizotypy-like effects, worsening schizophrenia while treating autism, but not appearing to affect overall intelligence (Crespi 2016c)(Cloudfindings 2024k). Testosterone, in opposition to oxytocin, may push cognition in a more autistic direction (Crespi 2016c). The glutamate receptor mGLUR5 also seems to modulate cognition towards autism when activated, and toward schizotypy when blocked (Crespi 2016c). It's possible that the opioid system may affect the autism-schizotypy continuum as well: psychological trauma, which increases the kappa-opioid agonist dynorphin and causes disorders related to schizophrenia and hyper mentalism such as borderline personality disorder through the opioid system (Cloudfindings 2023f). Psychological trauma increases cognitive empathy, and blocking mu-opioid receptors - which function oppositely to kappa-opioid receptors (Shippenberg & Herz 1986) increases cognitive empathy (Hosgorler et al. 2024). However, the increase in cognitive empathy is not in line with an improvement in social behavior in general: dynorphin is instead associated with low social motivation and high anxiety (Shippenberg & Herz 1986)(Leconte et al. 2022). Dynorphin is associated with fast life history traits, such as substance use, as well as simultaneous hypervigilance and suppression of emotion through dissociation (Leconte et al. 2022), both being associated with harsh early environments (Del Giudice 2018). Dynorphin likely pushes brain function toward schizotypy and away from autism, and perhaps how this manifests in areas such as intelligence is dependent on the genetic regulation of other systems like dopamine - dynorphin suppresses social motivation through suppressing dopamine (Leconte et al. 2022), therefore high dynorphin in an individual predisposed to high dopamine might present with more positive symptoms than negative ones, and perhaps increased cognitive ability. However, given that dynorphin’s effects also highly resemble the intelligence-linked social difficulty factor of autism and schizotypy, it is hard to say what precisely the effect of dynorphin is on these disorders. Serotonin is likely involved in the autism-schizotypy continuum - higher serotonin is associated with increased conscientiousness, prosocial behavior, lower openness, and disgust (Cloudfindings 2024k) (marking serotonin as being associated with a slow life history strategy), and serotonin is reliably found to be increased in autism (Gabriele et al. 2014), with some evidence of reduced serotonin in schizotypy (Cloudfindings 2023b).
Conclusion
Overall, I argue that the evidence supports that, instead of autism being related to high intelligence and schizophrenia to low intelligence, autism and schizophrenia both represent forms of high intelligence, but with diametric aspects to them.
‘I ain’t livin right but I ain’t living wrong neither’ (ODDY NUFF DA $NOW LEOPARD - $HARK ATTACK, 2014)
‘You wanna see my dead cause of my hops’ (Viper the Rapper - You Wanna See Me Dead Cause Of My Hops, 2009)
‘Go tell the teacher - I don’t give a fuck’ (ODDY NUFF DA $NOW LEOPARD - $HARK ATTACK, 2014)
‘I got good bitches bad bitches rich bitches poor bitches, all that I have is bitches, and I want more bitches’ (DJ Paul & Lord Infamous - All I Got Is Bitches, 1992)
‘I’m about to take down my disability care service and rise to the top’ - Daniel Larson
‘All the best people are crazy’ (Melanie Martinez - Mad Hatter, 2014)
Bonus Content
I decided to remove this part of the paper, because it began to seem a bit irrelevant as I was writing the rest of it, however I’ve decided to leave it in for anyone who might find it interesting.
Unfortunately, most examples given of schizotypes do not paint a flattering picture of schizotypal personality disorder - common examples listed by educational resources currently are mostly made up of serial killers, terrorists, and other types that would generally be considered ‘evil’ like Adolf Hitler and Jeffery Dahmer. For one reason, most well known schizotypes are higher functioning and do not have significantly severe negative symptoms usually, and therefore do not appear as obviously schizotypal - most artists whose personalities are eccentric, offensive, create highly aesthetic and non-conformist art, have somewhat cult like followings, and attract individuals with mental illness are for the majority high functioning schizotypes. Successful schizotypes tend to create revolutionary contributions to culture and attract cult-like followings (Price & Stevens 1998), and are otherwise highly innovative. Out of the art I personally consume, hip hop music makes up the vast majority, and I have noticed trends of schizotypy like themes in many hip hop artists and there is some empirical data to support such an association (Cloudfindings 2024e) - Kanye West is an obvious example that many would know of. The genre of memphis rap appears particularly schizotypic in themes - it originated from people from particularly disadvantaged backgrounds, was innovative and highly influential, and characterized by offensive and raw themes with spiritual and paranormal themes, and has a modern cult-like following. Songs like “Mind Playing Tricks on Me” by Geto Boys directly reference psychotic experiences and schizotypal traits. Other alternative genres likely are popular with schizotypes and contributed to by schizotypes (Cloudfindings 2024e). I will list some specific examples of schizotypes that have high intelligence, and as well as individuals who are not necessarily schizotypic but show support for this model.
Example 1
The first example, who I will not mention by name for privacy, is a person who runs a chemical company selling experimental new psychoactive substances for research purposes. He is self taught and creates and synthesizes new compounds invented by him, with him being the only employee of his company. Beyond chemistry, he is also an independent musician, has started a religion, is invested in crypto currency trading, other sciences which he has contributed to, and numerous other hobbies. Publicly he expresses clearly schizotypal themes such as not trusting other people, disliking ‘fake’ people (Stanghellini & Ballerini 2007), belief in conspiracy theories, paranoid delusions of being targeted with mind control weapons, social isolation, and an otherwise clearly eccentric personality.
Paul Meehl
Paul Meehl was a psychologist who studied schizotypy and made some of the very first contributions to the characterization of schizotypal personality and the concept of schizotypy, his characterization being considered very accurate compared to modern depictions by schizotypes I have shared it with and mentioning various traits that aren’t mentioned elsewhere (Meehl 1964). My impression is that Meehl himself was mildly schizotypal (possibly what had drawn him to study schizotypes), and highly intelligent. He made massive original contributions to the field of psychology (which schizotypes tend to be drawn to - Cloudfindings 2024f), and was considered by some to be a genius (Peterson 2005). Meehl was clearly non-conformist, considered eccentric by his peers, and had opinions which were controversial at the time, deviating from the majority of psychologists at the time (e.g., Meehl 1973). His style of work was clearly original and unconventional, some of it reminding me of myself.
Dual Core
I do not type dual core the rapper primarily as schizotypal but largely autistic, however, I consider him to be an example of how environment can shape intellect in the direction of schizotypy. Dual Core is a rapper of the genre “nerdcore”, common themes in his music mostly being about hacking, but as well as aspects of the life of being a programmer, and his past. Notably, Dual Core is self taught in programming to a very talented degree from an early age [Song 1], indicating intelligence, and possibly some autistic traits. Notably, Dual Core, is also highly antisocial to a degree (as indicated by antisocial behavior using computers, i.e., “digital gangsta”), many of his songs are about hacking, and he has been in trouble with the law from an early age because of this [Song 1]. Dual Core reports a harsh early environment characterized by negative family relations [Song 1], as well as having witnessed negative family relations around him and forced to deal with stressors such as attempting to save a physically abused friend from his family, through a plan that involved hacking, but failed [Song 2]. Like the artist phenotype described in schizotypy, or the unrestricted manifestation of intellect associated with a particular environment and mating strategy, Dual Core had grown socially from an early age from his hacking tools which he distributed online as a child [Song 3], and then as a rapper, which were deviations from the goals and values of his caregivers [Song 1]. Dual Core also has liberal attitudes towards substance use [Song 6], also consistent with schizotypy. Dual Core being a rapper is directly in line with the hypothesis put forth in Cloudfindings (2024e). Dual Core regardless reports difficulties with socializing and dating, characteristic of an autistic phenotype [Song 4][Song 5], as well as a long term mating strategy [Song 5]. Experiences such as Anderssein and non-conformity are reported, showing that to some degrees these traits are common to high intelligence and schizotypy, showing the overlap but as well as distinctions between schizotypy, intelligence, and autism.
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Songs
Dual Core - Beginning of the End (2008)
Dual Core - Hear Them Talking (2012)
Dual Core & YtCracker - I Remember (2009)
Dual Core - Unplug (2008)
Dual Core - Forever (2009)
Dual Core - All The Things (2012)
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